A view of the front of the Madeleine

A traditional part of the French Army, cantinières were attached to battalions of the French army and wore a soldier's uniform, as represented in this "carte de visite". While they would be primarily in charge of carrying food and drink to soldiers, they would also participate in some assaults or battles such as those of the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871). Despite the horrific defeat of the French by the Germans in this war, the city of Paris refused to surrender to German occupation of the capital. Although the newly elected French National Assembly, under the direction of Adolphe Thiers, accepted a peace agreement with Prussia and negotiated terms of surrender in March of 1871, the city of Paris refused submission to Thiers and the Germans, and opted instead to elect a municipal council known as the Commune of Paris. Officially established on March 18th and comprised mainly of members of the working class, the Commune was considered to be a socialist government formed by and for the people, and represented an attempt for Parisians to rewrite laws and reclaim power from the bottom. Shortly after establishing itself, the Commune passed laws that lowered rent, granted freedom of the press, separated church and state, and improved general working conditions for Parisian citizens. The Commune's socialist approach depended on representation of the city as a whole, including women. Women played an active role in participating in various committees and serving as soldiers in battles against the Versailles government. One club, known as the "Union des femmes pour la défense de Paris et les soins aux blessés," founded by Marx's friend Elizabeth Dmitrieff, was an especially active association of women who helped to aid wounded communards. The cantinières were affiliated with this group, and were responsible for providing food and drink to the National Guard of the Commune. They were known to carry coffee or brandy in their casks and were often observed marching and fighting with their battalion.

In an effort to symbolically commemorate his Grande Armée, Napoléon Bonaparte ordered the construction of the Arc de Triomphe in the eighth arrondissement. Although construction officially began in 1806, the monument was not completed until the time of Louis Philippe's reign in 1836. In 1854, under the direction of Napoléon III and Haussmann, architects implemented plans to create six new avenues extending from the Arc, resulting in what is now known as the Place de l'Étoile (photographed here by Félix Nadar). Also a writer and caricaturist, Nadar is best known for his photographic portraits and aerial photography of Paris from his balloon "Le Géant," as well as for patenting aerial photography.

"Carte de visite."

Construction for the Avenue de l'Opéra officially began in 1854, though it was not until 1873 that it received its name (it was originally called "Avenue Napoléon"). The avenue was initially opened in 1864 and situated between Rue Louis-le-Grand and the Boulevard des Capucines. It was extended, however, in 1867 and 1876, and was officially permanently opened at this latter date. It is now located between the Place du Théâtre-Français and the Place de l'Opéra. Like most of Haussmann's work, the construction of the Avenue de l'Opéra resulted in massive demolition of certain quarters and residences. By 1876, the total construction costs reached 9.8 million dollars, and 168 homes were destroyed. This photograph, taken by Charles Marville, is located at the Bibliothèque Historique de la Ville de Paris. Marville was best known for capturing images of the older Parisian quarters prior to urbanization. In 1850, Marville was hired by the city of Paris to document the changes brought on during the demolition and reconstruction of the Haussmann era. He was named the official photographer of Paris in 1862.

The severity of the demolition depicted here between the rues de l'Échelle and Saint Augustin was not unusual for the Second Empire. The renovation and construction of new public roadways and parks oftentimes necessitated the complete destruction of various Parisian roadways and quarters. Photographer Charles Marville was well-known for capturing images of the older Parisian quarters prior to urbanization. In 1850, Marville was hired by the city of Paris to document the changes resulting from the demolition and reconstruction of the Haussmann era. He was named the official photographer of Paris in 1862.

A traditional part of the French Army, cantinières were attached to battalions of the French army and wore a soldier's uniform, as represented in this "carte de visite". While they would be primarily in charge of carrying food and drink to soldiers, they would also participate in some assaults or battles such as those of the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871). Despite the horrific defeat of the French by the Germans in this war, the city of Paris refused to surrender to German occupation of the capital. Although the newly elected French National Assembly, under the direction of Adolphe Thiers, accepted a peace agreement with Prussia and negotiated terms of surrender in March of 1871, the city of Paris refused submission to Thiers and the Germans, and opted instead to elect a municipal council known as the Commune of Paris. Officially established on March 18th and comprised mainly of members of the working class, the Commune was considered to be a socialist government formed by and for the people, and represented an attempt for Parisians to rewrite laws and reclaim power from the bottom. Shortly after establishing itself, the Commune passed laws that lowered rent, granted freedom of the press, separated church and state, and improved general working conditions for Parisian citizens. The Commune's socialist approach depended on representation of the city as a whole, including women. Women played an active role in participating in various committees and serving as soldiers in battles against the Versailles government. One club, known as the "Union des femmes pour la défense de Paris et les soins aux blessés," founded by Marx's friend Elizabeth Dmitrieff, was an especially active association of women who helped to aid wounded communards. The cantinières were affiliated with this group, and were responsible for providing food and drink to the National Guard of the Commune. They were known to carry coffee or brandy in their casks and were often observed marching and fighting with their battalion.

A traditional part of the French Army, cantinières were attached to battalions of the French army and wore a soldier's uniform, as represented in this "carte de visite". While they would be primarily in charge of carrying food and drink to soldiers, they would also participate in some assaults or battles such as those of the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871). Despite the horrific defeat of the French by the Germans in this war, the city of Paris refused to surrender to German occupation of the capital. Although the newly elected French National Assembly, under the direction of Adolphe Thiers, accepted a peace agreement with Prussia and negotiated terms of surrender in March of 1871, the city of Paris refused submission to Thiers and the Germans, and opted instead to elect a municipal council known as the Commune of Paris. Officially established on March 18th and comprised mainly of members of the working class, the Commune was considered to be a socialist government formed by and for the people, and represented an attempt for Parisians to rewrite laws and reclaim power from the bottom. Shortly after establishing itself, the Commune passed laws that lowered rent, granted freedom of the press, separated church and state, and improved general working conditions for Parisian citizens. The Commune's socialist approach depended on representation of the city as a whole, including women. Women played an active role in participating in various committees and serving as soldiers in battles against the Versailles government. One club, known as the "Union des femmes pour la défense de Paris et les soins aux blessés," founded by Marx's friend Elizabeth Dmitrieff, was an especially active association of women who helped to aid wounded communards. The cantinières were affiliated with this group, and were responsible for providing food and drink to the National Guard of the Commune. They were known to carry coffee or brandy in their casks and were often observed marching and fighting with their battalion.

A traditional part of the French Army, cantinières were attached to battalions of the French army and wore a soldier's uniform, as represented in this "carte de visite". While they would be primarily in charge of carrying food and drink to soldiers, they would also participate in some assaults or battles such as those of the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871). Despite the horrific defeat of the French by the Germans in this war, the city of Paris refused to surrender to German occupation of the capital. Although the newly elected French National Assembly, under the direction of Adolphe Thiers, accepted a peace agreement with Prussia and negotiated terms of surrender in March of 1871, the city of Paris refused submission to Thiers and the Germans, and opted instead to elect a municipal council known as the Commune of Paris. Officially established on March 18th and comprised mainly of members of the working class, the Commune was considered to be a socialist government formed by and for the people, and represented an attempt for Parisians to rewrite laws and reclaim power from the bottom. Shortly after establishing itself, the Commune passed laws that lowered rent, granted freedom of the press, separated church and state, and improved general working conditions for Parisian citizens. The Commune's socialist approach depended on representation of the city as a whole, including women. Women played an active role in participating in various committees and serving as soldiers in battles against the Versailles government. One club, known as the "Union des femmes pour la défense de Paris et les soins aux blessés," founded by Marx's friend Elizabeth Dmitrieff, was an especially active association of women who helped to aid wounded communards. The cantinières were affiliated with this group, and were responsible for providing food and drink to the National Guard of the Commune. They were known to carry coffee or brandy in their casks and were often observed marching and fighting with their battalion.